• The causes and consequences of population growth are two important questions for demographers.
• Means of population control that societies have used throughout history include late marriage, infanticide, migration and various means of birth control.
• Throughout history political leaders have been concerned about population growth in a variety of ways - some were more concerned about population replacement after battles, etc. Some were concerned about the effects of population growth, although that concern was not terribly important until about the Middle Ages.
• Ibn Khaldun, an early Muslim sociologist (14^th century) noted that population growth in the cities was good because it meant prosperity and intellectual stimulation.
• During the Mercantilist era people saw an increase in population as advantageous leading to an increase in income.
• French nobleman Condorcet thought that population growth and prosperity would increase together. Any future problems would be addressed by individuals who had concern for the world wellbeing.
• William Godwin (English) believed that scientific progress would enable food supply to grow far beyond any potential for overpopulation.

Thomas Mathus (English) - In 1798 he proposed that population grows geometrically, whereas food (subsistence) increases arithmetically. Check on population growth will therefore be a lack of food. Land, technology and social organization limits food production. People will rarely die by starvation, but other causes will intervene - these are positive checks - disease and physical problems as a result of poor nutrition. Preventive checks are birth control (abstinence, contraception and abortion). Moral restraint (delay marriage while remaining chaste) is the best measure.

Poverty is the natural result of population growth. Overpopulation may force wages down to the point where people can't afford to marry. The well-educated, rational person understands the problems of too many people and restrains themselves. The only solution to over-population is to change human nature (the desire for sex!)

So if people remain poor it is their own fault for not having children. If everyone is responsible for caring for their own children then they will take more responsibility.

His theory remains controversial.

Neo Malthusians disagree with moral restraint but accept his other conclusions.

Marx and Engels - Their perspective arose in reaction to Malthus. Marx argued that each society has its own law of population growth, depending upon its technology, social organization, etc. Capitalist societies are prone to overpopulation and poverty (because of the unequal distribution of resources) whereas a socialist society can provide for all people more easily.

John Stuart Mill - accepted Malthus's proposition that population could outstrip food supply. But he was more optimistic about people. He thought overpopulation would be prevented by the desire for a higher standard of living.

Arsene Dumont (French, 19^th century) - He developed a principle of population called social capillarity. Ascending the social scale (status) requires sacrifices. There was an accompanying fear of slipping down in social status that propelled people to make the sacrifices.

Emile Durkheim - Population growth leads to greater societal specialization. Is it good??? Not clear.

Demographic Transition Theory - developed with Warren Thompson in 1929. It is the period of rapid growth when a country is moving from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates, from high growth potential to incipient decline.

Population explosion refers to the idea that population growth has been slow until relatively recently, then it increased dramatically in a short period of time.

Modernization Theory - The idea that premodern societies were governed by tradition, thus fertility and mortality are high. In modern societies fertility and mortality are low. In between is the demographic transition. Development is the best contraceptive.

Demographic Change and Response Theory - Kingsley Davis - Basically this is the idea that people will respond to the decline in mortality only if they notice it. Their response will be determined by the social situation in which they find themselves.

The Relative Income Hypothesis - Richard Easterlin - Birth rate doesn't respond to absolute levels of economic well-being, but rather to levels that are relative to those to which one is accustomed. The standard of living you experience in late childhood is the base of evaluation as an adult. If you perceive that it will be difficult to achieve that standard, you will postpone marriage and childbearing.

Longevity depends on biological and social factors

Common causes of death include:

1. Infectious and parasitic diseases
2. HIV/AIDS
3. Pneumonia and Influenza
4. Degeneration from Chronic diseases
5. Products of the social and economic environment
6. Accidents
7. Suicide
8. Homicide

Social Status Differentials in Mortality

1. Occupation
2. Income and education
3. Race and Ethnicity
4. Marital Status

1. Age to begin sexual unions
2. Celibacy
3. Time between unions (divorce etc)
4. Voluntary abstinence
5. Involuntary abstinence
6. Coital frequency
7. Breast feeding (perhaps)
8. Contraception
9. Voluntary infecundity (sterilization)
10. Abortion

1. Migration

Population Aging - looks at the effect of declining mortality and fertility.

Family Demography and Life Chances - looks at the household composition and conditions that contribute to the chance each person has of a "good life".

Urban transition - looks at the change from rural to urban life.

Population growth and development - looks at the economic development as it relates to population.

Demographics - The major difference between demographics and demography is that the latter is concerned with producing knowledge whereas the former is concerned with the use of existing knowledge to identify and solve problems.