You can be a passive listener. or an active listener. If you are a passive listener you don't question what you read. so the writer's opinions become your own. If you are an active listener, you ask questions in order to decide what to believe. You have a meaningful dialogue with the author. Many issues have no right answer, but you develop the best answer you are capable of at the time.

How to read. There are two kinds of readers. A sponge absorbs information trying to find out what the author has to say. The filter finds the essentials and evaluates their worth.
These are the questions to ask in order to filter the content of what you are reading.

1. What are the issue and conclusion.
That is, what is the writers position. Conclusion is equivalent to the writer's position. Sometimes these are explicit - in the title or in the first sentence. Or they may be in the conclusion. Find the conclusion to critically evaluate the writing. The conclusion is a statement or set of statements that the writer wants you to believe on the basis of other statements. A conclusion is not a fact, but it requires facts or statements to support it.
Clues to finding the conclusion if it is not explicit.

    a. Ask yourself what the issue is. When you identify the issue you will see the conclusion nearby.
    b. Look for indicator words:
        thus, therefore, in fact, it follows that, in my opinion, it is highly probable that, as a result, it has been
        proven that, the point I'm  trying to make is
    c. Look at the beginning or the end of the piece. Many pieces begin with a declaration of purpose.
    d. Remember what a conclusion is not. Is it not:
       a fact, an example, a definition, or background information.
Many people miss conclusions when they read. If you miss the conclusion, then it is not possible to read critically, because everything else depends upon the conclusion. Jt is important to keep the conclusion in mind when you read.

2. What are the reasons?
Why does the author believe this? Reasons are statements that answer why the author believes something. They can be facts or statements. Tip off words for reasons are:
    because, first, second, third, since, in view of the fact that, for one thing, for example, also

3. What words or phrases are ambiguous?
 e.g. obscenity. A clue is that the more abstract a word is the more ambiguous it is likely to be. If it is ambiguous
 it can be interpreted in many  different ways, so the meaning is not clear.

4. What are value conflicts and value assumptions?
Writers only present reasons that support their point of view. They have hidden and unstated values that are as important as the stated values. Values are ideas that they believe in. You can value many things, but values influence your choices and behaviors. There are common values in our society, and there are values which individuals hold that are not common. Being aware of the unstated values is like reading between the lines. these are the value assumptions. You look for them in the same place that you look for ambiguity as the author moves from reasons to conclusion. Values affect the quality of the argument. f he writer reveals stated and unstated values when taking a position. A clue to understanding the unstated values of the writer is to identify his or her background.

The first four questions are questions about structure, and impact on the conclusion. Some questions can only be answered tentatively even with the best of evidence - especially questions of human behavior. 'I here is no right or wrong answer. ~ 0 evaluate, you need to look at the facts, and the claims - how true are the claims? Empirical evidence is evidence gathered through experiments and human observation. One means of collecting evidence is to identify a sample, research the situation in that sample, and draw general principles from the findings.

5. Are the samples representative and the measurements valid?
To decide if the sample is representative, you must look at the size, breadth and randomness of the sample. Size should be sufficient, breadth is: are all the different types of persons represented, and randomness means a selection process by chance.

Measurement - you can't assume that something (some survey, etc.) measures a characteristic because it claims to. There is more to it than that. Surveys are used to measure attitude and beliefs. Yet surveys can be biased:
    because people tell you what they think they should,
    they can have a built in bias in the wording of the survey.

6. Are there flaws in the stated reasons.
The following are the common flaws.
    a. Evidence from authority is used - a testimonial. This is an appeal to the authority rather than an appeal to reasoning. You must ask. is the authority respected? Does the authority have experience in what the writer is talking about? is the authority objective?
    b. A striking example is used rather than a sample. It may be just one case, different from the rest.
    c. Misleading percentages are used. What are the percentages based on? 3% of 1,000 is more than 200/0. of 50. Be especially wary when the writer compares percentages.
    d. Use of impressively large numbers. But what numbers have been left out? For instance, 778 doctors from a medical organization sounds impressive, but not if there are 500,000 members, and the rest disagreed.
    e. Conclude one thing but prove another. e.g. not complaining doesn't mean that they were happy.
Use the writer's evidence to form your own conclusion. If it doesn't match the writer's conclusion, there is probably a flaw in the reasoning - either yours or the writers.

7. Are there errors in the writer's reasoning?
Reject the reasoning when:
    a. it attacks a person or a person 5 background.
    b. it presents a false dilemma (oversimplifies things. gives you only two possible choices)
    c. it diverts attention from the central issue.
    d. it begs the question - when it repeats the conclusion in different words as the reason.

8. What significant information is missing?
Asking questions about the missing information is important.
    a. You may be able to supply the information.
    b. Searching for missing information is a good practice.
    c. it prevents you from making up your mind too soon.

Asking questions won't always lead to absolute, indesputably correct answers. Some arguments won't have enough information. Or it might be too complex. But you will be able to come to a reasonable, tentative decision. Be confident but not cocky. Most arguments have flaws. That doesn't mean that they are bad - just that we are human.

SQRR
Survey the material - scan through to get the broad picture of the subject
Question - which issues are most important
Read - allow yourself enough time to get the ideas and meaning. Take it in chunks.
Recite - answer the questions to yourself when you've done the reading.
Review - skim over it again. reminding yourself of how even thing fits together.

TAKING EFFECTIVE NOTES
Do the reading before- class. so the lecture is a review. not an introduction.
Identify the main points.
Rewrite your notes and date them.
Review your notes periodically

BE AN ACTIVE LEARNER
Read before class
Attend discussion sessions - ask questions
Get to know the profs - they are resources.

Based on "Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking" by Neil Brown and Stuart M. Keeley.

Figure on 2 hours of study for each hour in class. So if you have 15 hours of classes a week, yu should study 30 hours a week. That means you spend a total of 45 hours a week involved in academics -i.e. you are a full time student. If you have 20 hours of classes a week, you will need to spend 40 hours a week studying. for a total of 60 hours a week of academic activity. The pay off here, of course, is that you will finish sooner - if you are able to keep up the grades with the extra load.

If you spend 8 hours a day sleeping. and a minimum of 2 hours a day getting dressed, traveling to and from classes, and eating. that leaves you with 14 hours for other things. If during the week, you spend three hours a day in class, and 6 hours a day studying, this leaves five hours for other things -talking with friends, etc. With this schedule, you have no studying to do on the week ends, because you have done it during the week.

If during the week you spend 4 hours a day in class, and 8 hours a day studying, this leaves you with only 2 hours a day for other things. But again, because you have done all your studying during the week, you would have your weekends free.

If you spend 3 hours a day in class, and only study 3 hours a day during the week, this leaves 15 hours of study for the weekend. Since no one is likely to study for 15 hours at a time, this means that you will be spending 7 112 hours studying on both Saturday and Sunday. Even this is not unmanageable. If you get up early and start studying at 7 A M, you could be finished by 2:30 P M, and have the rest of the day for socializing and other things. Or, if you do other things during the day. and then start studying at 4:30 or 5 PM, you would be finished studying at 12 or 12:30 midnight.

If you spend 4 hours a day in class, and only study 4 hours a day during the week, this leaves 20 hours of study for the weekend. In this case, you will need to study 10 hour on Saturday and 10 hours on Sunday - a hefty amount by anyone's standard.

If you have a job. your study time is cut short. But with some planning, you could probably get in several hours of study every day. thereby lessening the amount of study required on the weekend.

For a basic class ,such as Introduction to Sociology') you will need to spend time reading the text, going over your notes, and making a review sheet. For an average 3 credit class, you should spend 5 hours a week studying. Suppose the class covers a chapter a week. Two of the live hours should be spent reading the material. Another two hours should be spent answering review questions, and outlining the content, writing out definitions of words to memorize. One hour a week should be spent going over the notes from class - rewriting them if necessary, contrasting what was said in class with the material in text book. If this is done on a regular basis. by the time test time comes, there should be little extra time needed to ensure that you know the material - perhaps an hour or two can be "borrowed" from another class, or from tree time to go over the material a second or third time.
 
 

from THINKING CRIT1CALLY by John Chaffee, Houghton Mifflin Company
Thinking is an active process.
Thinking is directed toward a purpose.
Thinking is an organized process.
Thinking is an active purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to make sense of our world.
Thinking critically is an active. purposeful organized cognitive process we use to carefully examine our
thinking and the thinking of others in order to clarify and improve our understanding.

Problem Solving
I. What is the problem
To solve a problem. you must first be willing to accept the problem by acknowledging the problem exists and committing yourself to trying to solve the problem.
    List the benefits
    Formalize the acceptance
    Accept responsibility for our lives
    Create a worst case scenario
    Identify constraints
    How would someone else view the problem.

2. What are the alternatives?
3. What are the advantages and/or disadvantages of each alternative?
4. What is the solution?
5. How well is the solution working?

Perceiving is actively selecting. organizing and interpreting what is experienced by our senses.
Beliefs include
    Interpretations
    Evaluations
    Conclusions
    Predictions
Determine the degree of accuracy
    completely accurate
    generally accurate
    generally not accurate
    definitely not accurate
A belief is effective if:
    it explains what is taking place
    it is consistent with other beliefs
    it helps you predict what will happen
    it is supported by sound reasons and compelling evidence derived from reliable sources
Language has
    semantic meaning (relationship between speaker and an object, idea or feeling i.e. chair, love)
    perceptual meaning - relationship between event and consciousness
    syntactical meaning - relation to other words in the sentence
    pragmatic meaning relationship to the situation in which the word was used.
General she is really smart
               she does well in school
               she gets straight As
Specific she got an A in physics

An ambiguous word with more than one meaning is open to different interpretations.
Slang and jargon
Euphemistic language - more pleasant. less objectionable way of saying something
Emotive language - stimulate certain feelings
Language of advertising - appeals to fears and desires, offering magic potions and sacred objects

Concepts are general ideas that we use to identify and organize our experience.
    Properties are qualities that all examples of the concept share in common.
    Signs are a word or symbol that names the concept
    Referents are examples of the concept.
Generalizing is focusing on certain similar features among things to develop the requirements for the concept.
Interpreting is looking for different things to apply the concept to, in order to determine if they meet the requirements of the concept we are developing.
When you define a concept, you usually identify the necessary properties/requirements that determine when the concept can be applied.
A mind map is a visual presentation of the ways concepts can be related to one another.

Throughout this book we have been considering and experiencing the insight that each one of us is a creator. Each of us is actively shaping - as well as discovering - the world we live in. Our world does not exist as a finished product. waiting for us to perceive it, think about it, and describe it with words and pictures. Instead, we are active participants in composing the world that seems so familiar to us. the goal is to organize your world into meaningful patterns that will help you figure out what is going on and what you ought to do. Composing your world involves all of the activities that we have been exploring:
        perceiving             symbolizing           interpreting
        believing               describing              conceptualizing
        Knowing               classifying             defining
        solving problem   generalizing           analyzing

There are three basic ways of relating and organizing which reflect three basic thinking patterns.
1.Chronological and process relationships -
    Chronological is organizing something in terms of their occurrence in time
    Process thinking is relating aspects of growth and development of an event or experience. It can be natural,
    mechanical. physical. mental, creative, etc.
            Divide the process into parts or stages.
            Explain the movement of the process through the parts or stages from beginning to end.
2. Comparative and analogical relationships -
    Comparative thinking is relating things in the same general category in terms of similarities and dissimilarities (The purpose is evaluative.)
    Analogical is relating things belonging to different categories in terms of each other. (The purpose is to recognize the differences.)
            Analogy is comparison between things that are basically dissimilar made for the purpose
            of illuminating our understanding of the things being compared.
            Simile is an explicit comparison between basically dissimilar things made for the purpose of illuminating our
            understanding of the things being compared.
            Metaphor is an implied comparison between basically dissimilar things made for the purpose of
            illuminating our understanding of the things being compared.
3. Causal relationships -
    Causal thinking is relating events in terms of the way some events are responsible for bringing about other
    events.
        Causal Chains
        Contributory causes
        Interactive causes

Three types of beliefs you use to make sense of the world
        Reports - Reporting factual information is describing the world in ways that can be verified through
        investigation.
        Inferences - Inferring is describing the world in ways that are based on factual information yet going
        beyond this information to make statements about what is not currently known.
        Judgments - Judging is describing the world in ways that express an evaluation based on certain criteria.
An argument is a form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion).
Reasons are statements that support another statement (known as a conclusion), justify it, or make it more probable.
        Cue words: since, for, because. as shown by, as indicated by, given that, assuming that, in view of, first,
        second, in the first place, may be inferred from. may be deduced from, may be derived from. for the reason
        that.
Conclusion is a statement that explains, asserts. or predicts on the basis of statements (known as reasons) that are offered as evidence for it.
        Cue words: therefore, thus. hence. so, which shows that, which proves that, implies that, points to, as a
        result. consequently. then, it follows that, thereby showing, demonstrates that, allows us to infer that,
        suggests very strongly that, you see that, leads me to believe that, allows us to deduce that.
We construct arguments to decide, to explain, to predict, to persuade.
An argument can be evaluated by examining
        How true are the supporting reasons? - A valid argument is one in which the reasons support the conclusion so that the conclusion follows from the reasons offered.
        Do the reasons support the conclusion'!
        The soundness of the arguments.
Forms of Arguments:
1. Deductive argument is one in which one reasons from prernises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that follows necessarily from these premises.
        Applying a general rule - reason within a valid Socrates syllogism: premise, premise, conclusion.
                All A are B. X is A, therefore X is b.
        Modus Ponens - affirming the antecedent. if A, then B. A, therefore B.
        Modus Tollens - denying the consequence if A, then B. Not B, therefore not A.
        Disjunctive Syllogism - presenting several alternatives. Either A or B. Not A, therefore B.
A good discussion is composed of:
        Listening carefully to other points of view
        Supporting views with reasons and evidence
        Responding to the points being made
        Asking - and trying to answer - appropriate questions
        Working to increase understanding, not simply to win the argument.
 
Composing an Argumentative Paper
        I. Generating ideas
            Familiarize yourself with the subject
            Brainstorm
            Create mind maps - how the ideas are related to each other
      2. Defining the main idea
        3. Conducting research
                Encyclopedias
                Card catalogues -
                Books
                Newspaper indexes
        4. Organizing ideas
            Your paper can locus on the viability of your main idea, emphasizing supporting reasons.
            Your paper can locus on key issues one at a time. supporting your view/relating opposing views.
            Your paper can locus on the inadequacy of the opposing views, identifying weaknesses.
            Your paper can take a balanced approach. examining various perspectives in an objective, even
            handed fashion and then conclude with your own conclusion and solution.
        5. Revising
            Create a map that expresses the main points being considered and their relationships
            Examine the map, look for ways to clarify and improve the ideas.
                    Rearrange the sequence of ideas
                    Develop certain ideas further
                    Delete points that are repetitious and not central to the subject
            Compose a revised draft using the revision map as a guide.

Inductive Reasoning is that in which one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that is supported by the premises but does not follow necessarily from them.
Fallacies are unsound arguments that are often persuasive because they can appear to be logical, because they usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices and because they often support conclusions that we want to believe are accurate.
Empirical Generalizations are inductive reasoning in which a general statement is made about an entire group (the target population) based on observing some members of the group (the sample population).
        Is the sample known?
        Is the sample sufficient;
        Is the sample representative?
False Generalizations
        Hasty generalizations - sample is not large enough or representative enough Sweeping generalizations - true generalizations are applied to the wrong instances (exceptions)
       False Dilemma - either/or situations that are both extreme.
Causal Reasoning is a form of inductive reasoning in which an event is claimed to be the result of another event.
Scientific Method
        Identify an event or relationship between events to be investigated.
        Gather information about the events (or events)
        Develop a theory- or hypothesis to explain what is happening. Test the theory- or hypothesis through experimentation.
        Evaluate the theory- or hypothesis.
Hypothesis is a possible explanation that is introduced to account for a set of facts and that can be used as a basis for further investigation.
Causal Fallacies
        Questionable cause - no evidence
        Misidentification of the cause - such as ignoring a common cause, or assuming a common cause
        Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc - After it, therefore because of it - two things occur close together in time so we assume one is the cause of the other. Wearing your lucky shirt when your team wins the game.
        Slippery Slope - asserts that one undesirable action will inevitably lead to a worse action.

Fallacies of Relevance
        Appeal to authority
        Appeal to pity
        Appeal to fear
        Appeal to ignorance
        Appeal to personal attack
Guide to Reasoning
        What is my initial point of view?
        How can 1 define my point of view more clearly?
        What is an example of my point of view?
        What is the origin of my point of view?
        What are my assumptions?
        What are the reasons. evidence. and arguments that support my point of view?
        What are other points of view on this issue?
        What is my conclusion, decision, solution or prediction?
            What are the consequences?
Thinking creatively offsets thinking critically. Understand and trust the creative process:
            Absorb yourself in the task
            Allow time for ideas to incubate.
            Seize the ideas when they emerge and follow them through.
Eliminate the voice of judgment
         Restate the judgment in a more accurate or constructive way
            Get tough with the VOJ
            Create positive voices and visualizations
            Use other people for independent confirmations